Grammos – Voio

For several decades, the economy of the Kastoria region was closely linked to the fur processing and trading industry. The sector’s decline during the 1980s prompted the region to seek new development opportunities, including the promotion of ecotourism.

In the mountain areas, sustainable forestry remains the principal land use, covering approximately 48% of the region’s surface area. The highly productive conifer forests, in particular, provide an important source of income for local communities. The remaining land is used primarily for extensive mountain livestock farming and, to a lesser extent, for agriculture, mainly cereal cultivation. The gradual decline of traditional pastoralism has allowed many areas that had been heavily deforested before the Second World War to regenerate naturally. However, this process has also reduced the availability of open grasslands, which historically provided important feeding habitats for many species of wildlife.

Beyond the Greek–Albanian border, the Grammos mountain range continues into Albania as the Morava Mountains, an area covered by extensive natural mixed forests dominated by fir, black pine, and beech.

Wildlife populations such as the brown bear and the grey wolf do not recognise political borders. They move freely between Greece and Albania, highlighting the ecological continuity of these shared transboundary habitats. The same principle applies to the threats they face, making cross-border conservation efforts equally essential. Recognising this, Callisto places strong emphasis on Balkan-wide cooperation among environmental organisations, promoting joint actions to conserve and protect our shared natural heritage.

One of the defining features of Mount Grammos and the surrounding mountains is the remarkable diversity of their landscapes. From forested slopes to alpine meadows, and from deep gorges to rugged mountain ridges, the region’s unique geological foundation has been sculpted over time by water and wind into a wide variety of striking landforms. Steep cliffs, rocky outcrops, and twin peaks dominate the scenery, inspiring many of the area’s traditional place names.

A particularly impressive example is the Ondria Plateau, located southeast of Grammos above the village of Vrachos. Here, the local limestone has formed a vast, flat plateau reaching an elevation of 1,520 metres, enclosed by steep rock walls that give it the appearance of a natural fortress. Over thousands of years, water and vegetation have carved the soft limestone into a complex landscape of dolines (sinkholes) and shallow depressions. These distinctive karst formations create a mosaic of microhabitats that provide shelter and suitable conditions for hundreds of plant species and a rich diversity of small animals.

The unique geological substrate, including rare rock types such as serpentinite, the humid mountain climate, and above all the long-term isolation of these highland areas have shaped an exceptionally rich and distinctive flora. Although botanical surveys are still not considered exhaustive, the recorded flora already includes 487 taxa (species, subspecies, and varieties). Dozens of these are rare or of particular conservation importance, while 21 taxa are endemic to Mount Grammos, the Northern Pindus, or the wider surrounding mountain region.

This remarkable plant diversity is distributed across a wide range of habitats. Among the most notable are the alpine meadows, the extensive rocky outcrops and limestone formations, and the numerous springs, ponds, and other small wetlands scattered throughout the landscape, each supporting specialised plant communities and contributing to the area’s exceptional biodiversity.

Even an untrained observer can easily distinguish the four main vegetation zones of Mount Grammos. At the lowest elevations, riparian forests develop along streams and river valleys, often forming characteristic gallery forests dominated by alders (Alnus spp.) and willows (Salix spp.). In some of the deeper gorges, these forests include demanding broadleaved species such as maples (Acer spp.), elms (Ulmus spp.), small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata), and horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum). At higher elevations lies the oak zone, dominated primarily by Macedonian oak (Quercus trojana), which forms either shrublands or low mixed deciduous forests together with other broadleaved tree species.

Above 1,000 metres, dense mountain forests become the dominant vegetation, with black pine (Pinus nigra), European beech (Fagus sylvatica), and Bosnian pine (Pinus heldreichii / Pinus leucodermis) prevailing across the landscape. Among these forests, the Flambouro mixed beech–conifer forest is of exceptional ecological importance. Having never been subjected to commercial logging, it has retained its natural structure and was consequently included in the Council of Europe’s Biogenetic Reserves Network, designated a Natural Monument, and now forms part of the Natura 2000 network. Above 1,500 metres, where snow remains on the ground for much of the year, extensive alpine meadows replace the forests. These high-altitude grasslands provide valuable summer grazing areas while also serving as important refuges for numerous rare herbaceous plant species. Their prolonged flowering season creates the remarkable impression of spring persisting well into the height of summer.

The alpine meadows of Mount Grammos are home to some of the rarest high-altitude lakes in Greece. Among them are Moutsalia Lake, located at 1,730 metres in the area known as Epano Arena, and Gkistova Lake (also known as the Alpine Lake of Grammos), situated at 2,350 metres near the mountain’s highest peaks. Gkistova is the highest alpine lake in Greece.

Nestled beneath steep mountain summits and surrounded by extensive alpine grasslands, these lakes retain water throughout the year, creating a striking landscape unlike any other in the Greek mountains. Beyond their scenic beauty, they provide valuable habitat for a range of specialised wildlife, including three species of newts—often referred to as “fish with legs”: the great crested newt (Triturus cristatus), the alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris, formerly Triturus alpestris), and the smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris, formerly Triturus vulgaris). Smaller permanent and seasonal ponds found elsewhere across the alpine meadows of Grammos, such as those at Tyrokomeio (1,830 metres) and near the Greek–Albanian border, further enrich the landscape and contribute to the area’s exceptional biodiversity.

The Aliakmonas River, the longest river entirely within Greece, rises from the alpine meadows just below the highest peaks of Mount Grammos. It begins as a network of small mountain streams that flow across the high-altitude grasslands before converging into the river’s main channel. From there, the Aliakmonas descends through the Grammousta Valley, home to the historic settlement of the same name, and continues into the spectacular Katafiki Gorge. During the Greek Civil War, one of the gorge’s caves housed a makeshift hospital used by partisan forces, adding historical significance to this remarkable natural landscape. The river then winds through forested slopes, riparian woodlands, and abandoned mountain villages before reaching the valley of Nestorio.

Further downstream, the Aliakmonas is harnessed by a series of large hydroelectric dams that have dramatically transformed the character of northern Greece’s major rivers. While these projects have contributed significantly to electricity generation, they have also altered natural river ecosystems and their ecological connectivity, highlighting the need to balance renewable energy production with the conservation of freshwater habitats.

Beyond the alpine meadows accessible to visitors, the steep rocky cliffs and dense forests of Mount Grammos provide refuge for small populations of the Balkan chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica), a rare mountain ungulate native to the Balkan Peninsula.

The forests of Grammos also support stable populations of several large mammal species, including the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra)—an important indicator of the excellent water quality of the region’s rivers and streams—the grey wolf (Canis lupus), the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), the wild boar (Sus scrofa), and numerous smaller mammals. The only large mammals that appear to have disappeared from the area are the red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), Europe’s largest wild cat. Nevertheless, there remains hope that the lynx may one day return naturally to these mountains.

Among the mammals of the Grammos mountain range, the brown bear (Ursus arctos) is undoubtedly the flagship species. Its presence was one of the principal reasons for the area’s designation as part of the Natura 2000 network. Scientific studies carried out in the region—including the recording of field signs, radio-telemetry, and camera-trap monitoring—have provided valuable information on the bear’s distribution during critical stages of its annual life cycle. These findings have also contributed to the development of recommendations for the zoning and management of the protected area.

The Grammos bear population maintains a limited ecological connection with the larger Pindus–Western Macedonia population, as well as with a smaller subpopulation inhabiting Mount Morava in neighbouring Albania.

Although cases of deliberate killing of brown bears have declined significantly in recent decades—an encouraging indication of improving coexistence between people and wildlife—the species continues to face important conservation challenges. The principal threats today stem from human disturbance, habitat degradation, and the fragmentation of its habitat, all of which can reduce habitat connectivity and affect the long-term viability of bear populations.

A total of 142 bird species have been recorded in the Grammos mountain range—an exceptionally high number for a predominantly mountainous region. Among them are 21 species of birds of prey, including the Northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), the Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus), the Red-footed falcon (Falco vespertinus), the Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), the Booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus), and the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), one of Europe’s most endangered scavenging birds.

The rivers and streams of the region also support diverse freshwater ecosystems, providing habitat for 15 fish species, including brown trout, bleak, barbels, loaches, European eels, and several other native freshwater fish that contribute to the ecological richness of the Grammos river network.

Centuries of human presence and traditional livelihoods, followed by the profound upheavals of the twentieth century, have left enduring traces even in the most remote parts of Mount Grammos. The ruins of former settlements and abandoned orchards have become integral features of today’s landscape, playing an important ecological role.

The wild pear, cherry, apple, and plum trees that remain around these deserted villages now provide valuable seasonal food resources for the brown bear and many other species of wildlife. The region’s historic footpaths, many of which cross the numerous mountain streams via elegant stone arch bridges, remain the most authentic, environmentally friendly, and rewarding way to experience the forests and mountain landscapes of Grammos.